Delaney Bridges

Over the course of recorded human history, religion has formed the foundations of cultures and the ethical codes with which they operate. In polytheistic religions, deities served as representations of elements, emotions, or other domains of influence. Within the context of ancient Egyptian history, a deity and ethical code merged as one: Ma’at. A goddess who was synonymous with order and moral balance. Her name is both a conceptual principle and the name of a rational and lauded deity — an embodiment of a noun: a person, place, thing, or idea. By exploring the basic principles of Ma’at, there are clear parallels with the codes of other major religions that are still in use today, political practices, marketing methods, and more. In this way, the divine order of Ma’at is still very much in play despite the deities of ancient Egypt becoming obsolete with the passage of time.

Denise Martin, professor of African studies at the University of Louisville, asserts that “Ma’at is a comprehensive construct that existed throughout ancient Egyptian civilization,” (951). As a comprehensive construct, Ma’at has cosmological, religious, and philosophical principles that operate simultaneously under her name. While Egyptian polytheism faded, it is clear that Ma’at’s conceptual framework persists in secular ethics. The idea that moral order underpins societal stability echoes in legal systems worldwide, and her emphasis on harmony between humanity and nature prefigures ecological ethics. As Martin notes, Ma’at’s comprehensive nature, which spans cosmology, religion, and philosophy, cements her as a foundational construct in ethical history, transcending her original cultural context to inform global moral discourse. 

Ma’at was the embodiment of truth, balance, order, and justice, and was foundational not only to Egyptian law and ethics but also to the rhetorical practices that shaped them. How Egyptians communicated, persuaded, and resolved conflicts were all approached with Ma’at in mind. The goddess represented the ethical and moral principles that all Egyptians were expected to embody in daily life, including in speech and persuasion. Rhetorical skill was prized, but it was to be guided by Ma’at’s values: honesty, fairness, and the pursuit of harmony, rather than manipulation or deceit. Ancient Egyptian rhetoric was deeply rooted in moral instruction and social etiquette rather than formal public discourse. Texts used to train individuals like scribes and officials, emphasized ethical behavior and persuasive speech as intertwined elements of personal development. In the context of education, as Michael V. Fox, author of Rhetorica: A Journal of the History of Rhetoric notes, “To attain these benefits, their pupils must know the principles of both good behavior and good speech,” showing how eloquence was inseparable from character and conduct in Egyptian education (10). This approach reflects a rhetorical tradition where communication was a reflection of moral standing and societal order, not merely a technical skill.

In ancient Egypt, Ma’at was a foundational component of royal rhetoric. As Faraone and Teeter explain, “The semi-divine king in ancient Egypt was considered to be responsible for the maintenance of Ma’at through his just rule, and Ma’at was an important aspect of political control and loyalty” (187). The king’s legitimacy rested not only on divine descent but on his ability to uphold Ma’at, which functioned as both an ethical standard and a political necessity. By aligning himself with Ma’at, the pharaoh became more than a ruler—he became the living embodiment of truth and order. 

The integration of Ma’at into royal names and titles further demonstrates how deeply rhetoric was embedded in Egyptian kingship. From the Fourth Dynasty onward, pharaohs incorporated Ma’at into their official names, embedding the concept of divine justice directly into their identities. This linguistic strategy was more than ornamental—it was a persuasive tool. It made every reference to the king a reminder of his divine duty and moral alignment. As “The Instructions of Kagemni” advises, “Do Ma’at for the king, for Ma’at is what the king loves,” (Faraone and Teeter 187), the people were urged to obey not just the monarch, but the moral order he claimed to embody. In this way, Ma’at served as both an ideological foundation and a rhetorical device, used by Egyptian rulers to cultivate loyalty, maintain political stability, and legitimize their reign.

Ma’at’s emphasis on restorative justice and equitable distribution parallels modern frameworks like Ubuntu, an African philosophy emphasizing communal interdependence and reconciliation, (Ogude 5). Both concepts prioritize mediation over punishment and advocate for protecting vulnerable groups. Similarly, human rights frameworks echo Ma’at’s focus on protecting the weak and ensuring fair treatment under law.

Ma’at’s principle of cosmic balance finds modern expression in ecological ethics and sustainability movements. Climate justice initiatives, which demand equitable responsibility for environmental harm, reflect Ma’at’s insistence on reciprocity and moral accountability. Additionally, Ma’at’s role in guiding individual conduct toward integrity and balance parallels mindfulness practices and virtue ethics in contemporary psychology. The emphasis on living truthfully and harmoniously resonates with modern movements advocating for ethical consumerism and minimalism, which stress intentional living to reduce societal and environmental harm.

A landmark cross-cultural study conducted by anthropologists at the University of Oxford identified seven moral rules that are found across all societies surveyed: help your family, help your group, return favors, be brave, defer to superiors, divide resources fairly, and respect others’ property, (Curry, Mullins, and Whitehouse 3). The universally accepted morals identified by cross-cultural research align closely with the principles of Ma’at in ancient Egyptian thought. Ma’at is both a goddess and a foundational concept in ancient Egypt, embodying truth, justice, balance, harmony, order, propriety, and reciprocity. Egyptians believed that living according to Ma’at maintained not only social order but also the cosmic balance of the universe. The principles of Ma’at were expected to guide every aspect of life, from personal relationships to governance and environmental stewardship. 

Universal order and justice are interpreted through both shared moral foundations and diverse cultural lenses. While many societies recognize common ethical principles, their expression and prioritization often reflect unique historical, religious, and social contexts. Research suggests that there are certain moral rules—such as helping family, returning favors, being brave, respecting others’ property, fairness, and respecting authority—that are found across all cultures, indicating a shared moral code underpinning the idea of universal justice and order. Modern reinterpretations of Ma’at inspire Afrocentric movements and spiritual practices that emphasize ancestral wisdom. Contemporary Kemetic spirituality, for instance, revives Ma’at’s ideals as a guide for ethical living and social activism, (Smith 1). 

Ma’at’s principles are not only ethical but also cosmological: maintaining Ma’at was believed to keep chaos at bay, which would ensure the stability of the universe. This view reinforces the universality of these morals revealed by the aforementioned Oxford University study, as they are seen as essential for both individual well-being and collective harmony. The principles of Ma’at and the set of universally accepted morals are fundamentally aligned. Both frameworks emphasize truth, justice, reciprocity, compassion, respect, and the importance of maintaining order and harmony in human relations and the world at large.The ancient Egyptian concept of Ma’at, therefore, can be seen as an early and enduring articulation of the universal moral values recognized across human societies.

Politicians use rhetoric to craft persuasive messages tailored to their audience, aiming to influence public opinion and win elections. Classic examples include campaign speeches, debates, and public addresses, where rhetorical strategies such as ethos, pathos, and logos are employed to sway voters. Citizens also use rhetoric in civic engagement—speaking at city council meetings, writing letters to officials, or organizing advocacy campaigns all require carefully constructed arguments to rally support for causes. Rhetoric is central to the success of social movements, helping leaders and participants articulate grievances, inspire collective action, and frame issues in compelling ways to attract allies and media attention. In ancient Egypt, effective rhetoric in royal decrees, legal matters, or religious texts were expected to align with Ma’at. Arguments and speeches gained authority and persuasiveness when they were perceived as upholding truth, justice, and cosmic order.

In advertising, marketing, and digital media, rhetorical devices are used to shape perceptions, build brand identity, and persuade consumers. Rhetoric is clearly present in daily interactions as well, such as persuading a friend, negotiating at work, or presenting ideas in meetings. Techniques like rhetorical questions, analogies, and amplification help clarify points and influence others. Earnestly employing rhetorical practices to daily life align with several principles of Ma’at: I have not multiplied my words in speaking, I have not uttered lies, and I have not shut my ears to the words of truth.

At the center of many rhetorically-focused discussions for today’s scholars, big rhetoric is the idea that rhetoric is not just about formal persuasion but is a fundamental aspect of all symbolic human communication and social interaction. Beyond formal speeches, big rhetoric includes protest signs, viral videos, and grassroots campaigns that use symbols, slogans, and storytelling to mobilize support and shape public opinion. Job interviews, parenting, friendships, and even casual conversations are filled with rhetorical choices. People use ethos, pathos, and logos, (credibility, emotion, and logic — to summarize them simply), to persuade, motivate, or resolve conflicts in daily life.

Big rhetoric is evident in the persuasive, meaning-making practices found across digital platforms, advertising, pop culture, activism, everyday life, and even visual and scientific communication. It highlights how rhetoric shapes not just what we say, but how we live, interact, and construct reality in the modern world. Big rhetoric—the idea that rhetorical principles permeate all symbolic communication and social order—is deeply present in the concept and practice of Ma’at in ancient Egyptian society.

In essence, Ma’at was not limited to legal or religious contexts but was a universal principle guiding truth, justice, order, and harmony in every aspect of Egyptian life—family, community, governance, environment, and the gods. This broad scope mirrors the “big rhetoric” perspective, where all forms of communication and behavior are seen as rhetorical acts shaping and sustaining social order. Martin presents Ma’at as a rhetorical framework capable of addressing “intellectual, artistic, religious, social, personal, and spiritual existence” (965), suggesting a holistic mode of reasoning that mirrors the interconnectedness of African cultural life. Ma’at informed not just what was said, but how it was said, and the ethical intent behind communication. Ma’at’s principles highlight the rhetorical values of dialogue, empathy, and reciprocity that are foundational to big rhetoric.

Ma’at operates as a form of big rhetoric by making ethical, truthful, and harmonious communication fundamental to both personal conduct and the broader maintenance of cosmic and social order. Every act aligned with Ma’at—whether speech, ritual, or daily behavior—was a rhetorical act shaping the world, embodying the all-encompassing scope of big rhetoric. Martin demonstrates that many rhetorical systems are ontologically grounded, where cultural expression is inseparable from spiritual and cosmological belief—what she calls a “mutually dependent relationship” between cultural production and cosmology,” (Martin 954). The connection between rhetoric and Ma’at is deeply embedded in the symbolic structures of ancient mythology and political ideology, and it is simultaneously wound in the fabric of our present. 

The statement, “Metis and Egyptian Ma’at are both closely connected to the idea of legitimate monarchic rule” (Faraone and Teeter 1), highlights how divine feminine figures were used rhetorically to establish and affirm the authority of kings. In both Greek and Egyptian traditions, rulers relied on more than just force to secure their power. They also employed symbolic narratives that aligned them with divine wisdom and justice. In the case of the titan Metis, Zeus swallows her, thereby internalizing her token wisdom, which grants him the insight necessary to govern effectively. 

By embodying abstract principles like Ma’at and Metis, rulers transformed these concepts into persuasive tools—using them to construct a public image of authority rooted in balance, intelligence, and divine favor. The dual nature of these figures, both conceptual and anthropomorphic, further reinforces their rhetorical power. They are not merely passive symbols; they are active participants in the legitimization of monarchy. In Martin’s view, the persuasive power of maat lies not in abstraction but in its embodiment: it was “operational in everyday life,” (953), serving as a lived rhetoric that shaped both public discourse and personal identity. This blending of myth, political ideology, and rhetorical performance reveals how ancient civilizations strategically employed storytelling and divine symbolism to shape public perception and maintain political stability. In this way, rhetoric was not limited to speech or writing—it extended into visual iconography, ritual acts, and even the structure of mythology itself.

In brief, Ma’at’s principles—truth, balance, order, justice, harmony, and reciprocity—are present in modern rhetorical practice as guiding ideals for ethical and effective communication. In contemporary contexts, these values encourage speakers and writers to seek balance in their arguments, foster harmony, and promote justice and truthfulness in discourse. Modern adaptations of Ma’at emphasize virtues like sincerity, compassion, respect, and integrity, encouraging communicators to listen to opposing views, speak with good intent, and act with fairness and humility. These principles shape not only personal interactions but also public rhetoric, legal reasoning, and social advocacy, serving as a timeless framework for responsible and harmonious communication in diverse settings.

My Sources:

1. Curry, Oliver Scott, Daniel Austin Mullins, and Harvey Whitehouse. “Is It Good to Cooperate? Testing the Theory of Morality-as-Cooperation in 60 Societies.” Current Anthropology, vol. 60, no. 1, 2019, pp. 47–69. University of Chicago Press, https://doi.org/10.1086/701478.
2. Faraone, Christopher A., and Emily Teeter. Egyptian Ma’at and Hesiodic Metis. University of Chicago, 2022.
3. Fox, Michael V. “Ancient Egyptian Rhetoric.” Rhetorica: A Journal of the History of Rhetoric, vol. 1, no. 1, Spring 1983, pp. 9–22. University of California Press on behalf of the International Society for the History of Rhetoric. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/rh.1983.1.1.9.
4. Martin, Denise. “Maat and Order in African Cosmology: A Conceptual Tool for Understanding Indigenous Knowledge.” Journal of Black Studies, vol. 38, no. 6, July 2008, pp. 951–967. Sage Publications, Inc., https://www.jstor.org/stable/40035033.

5. Ogude, James. Ubuntu and the Reconstitution of Community. Indiana University Press, 2019. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvh4zgdk. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.